AP Physics 2

Units

1. 1

   Thermodynamics

   7 lessons

   1. Kinetic theory of temperature and pressureExplain gas pressure as molecular collisions, use K_avg = (3/2)k_BT and v_rms = √(3k_BT/m), and compare gases at one temperature.
   2. The ideal gas lawUse PV = nRT = Nk_BT with kelvin temperatures, solve fixed-amount problems with P₁V₁/T₁ = P₂V₂/T₂, and read the isothermal, isochoric and isobaric cases.
   3. Thermal energy transfer and equilibriumUse heat as energy transferred from hot to cold, name conduction, convection and radiation, and find a final temperature from Q_A + Q_B = 0.
   4. The first law of thermodynamicsUse ΔU = Q + W with W the work done on the gas, find W = −PΔV, and use ΔU = (3/2)nRΔT to analyse isothermal, adiabatic, isochoric and isobaric processes.
   5. PV diagrams and workRead states and processes on a P–V diagram, find the work as the area under a curve with the right sign, and use the loop area and ΔU = 0 for a cycle.
   6. Specific heat and thermal conductivityUse Q = mcΔT for one sample and for mixtures, and use Q/Δt = kAΔT/L to compare how fast energy conducts through a slab.
   7. Entropy and the second law of thermodynamicsCount microstates to say which outcome is most probable, state the second law for an isolated system and for a part of it, and see why heat flows hot to cold and no engine is perfect.
2. 2

   Electric force, field and potential

   8 lessons

   1. Electric charge and electric forceUse Coulomb's law F = k|q₁q₂|/r² for the size of the force between charges, read the direction from the signs, and add the forces from several charges as vectors.
   2. Conservation of electric charge and the process of chargingSay that charge is conserved and only electrons move, find the charges after friction, conduction and induction, and explain why a charged rod attracts neutral things.
   3. Fields of point chargesDefine the electric field as force per unit test charge, find the field of a point charge with E = k|Q|/r², use F = qE with the right direction, and read field lines.
   4. Superposition and uniform fieldsAdd the fields of several charges as vectors, find where a field vanishes, and use the uniform field between parallel plates to find the force and the motion of a charge.
   5. Electric potential energyFind the electric potential energy of a pair or a group of charges with U = kq₁q₂/r and its signs, relate work to ΔU, and use conservation of K + U for charges released from rest.
   6. Electric potentialDefine potential as energy per unit charge, find V = kQ/r and add potentials as scalars, use ΔV and U = qV for work and energy, and link E to the slope of V and to equipotentials.
   7. CapacitorsUse C = Q/ΔV and C = κε₀A/d, find the energy U = ½CΔV², combine capacitors in series and parallel, and say what changes when a dielectric goes in or the plates move apart.
   8. Conservation of electric energyUse ΔK = −qΔV and the electron volt to find the energy and speed a charge gains moving through a potential difference, in a uniform field or near a point charge.
3. 3

   Electric circuits

   9 lessons

   1. Electric CurrentUse I = ΔQ/Δt to find charge from a current, read a current from a charge-time graph, and explain why the current is the same all round a series loop.
   2. Simple CircuitsSay what a working circuit needs, read and draw circuit symbols, place an ammeter and a voltmeter correctly, use ε = W/q, and predict what a short circuit does.
   3. Resistance, Resistivity, and Ohm's LawDefine resistance as V/I, apply V = IR to ohmic conductors, find a wire's resistance from R = ρL/A, and read resistance from a V-I graph or a set of measurements.
   4. Electric PowerUse P = IV and its resistor forms I²R and V²/R, find the energy and cost of running an appliance, and decide which bulb is brighter in series and in parallel.
   5. Compound Direct Current CircuitsCombine resistors in series and in parallel, reduce a combination circuit step by step, and predict how currents and brightness change when a branch is added or removed.
   6. Kirchhoff's Loop RuleWrite ΣΔV = 0 around a closed loop with the right signs, solve a single loop for its current, and use it with several sources, a capacitor and ideal meters.
   7. Kirchhoff's Junction RuleUse ΣI_in = ΣI_out at a junction, and combine it with the loop rule to solve a two-loop circuit for its three branch currents, then check the answer.
   8. RC circuits: charging and dischargingDescribe the current, charge and voltages in a resistor-capacitor circuit at the start, in between and after a long time, for charging and for discharging, and find the energy involved.
   9. Time constant and RC graphsFind the time constant τ = RC, use the 63% and 37% marks at one time constant, sketch charging and discharging graphs, and say how changing R, C or ε changes them.
4. 4

   Magnetism and electromagnetism

   5 lessons

   1. Magnetic FieldsDescribe a magnetic field and its lines, explain why a compass points north, and use the right-hand rule to give the field direction of a long wire and of a coil.
   2. Magnetism and Moving ChargesFind the size and direction of the magnetic force on a moving charge, explain why it does no work, and use it to find the radius and period of a charge moving in a circle in a magnetic field.
   3. Magnetism and Current-Carrying WiresFind the field of a long straight wire, the force on a wire in a field, and the force between two parallel wires, including the direction in each case.
   4. Magnetic flux and Faraday's lawFind the magnetic flux through a loop with Φ = BA cos θ, use |ε| = |ΔΦ/Δt| to find the emf and current a changing flux induces, and apply it to a sliding rod, a loop crossing a field and a coil next to a changing current.
   5. Lenz's lawFind the direction of an induced current with the four-step procedure, and explain with energy conservation why it must oppose the change in flux.
5. 5

   Geometric optics

   7 lessons

   1. ReflectionApply the law of reflection with angles measured from the normal, locate the virtual image in a plane mirror, and explain diffuse reflection and the turning of a reflected ray.
   2. Ray diagrams for mirrorsLocate the image in a concave or convex mirror with the three principal rays, and describe it as real or virtual, upright or inverted, enlarged or reduced.
   3. The mirror equationUse 1/s_o + 1/s_i = 1/f and M = −s_i/s_o with a stated sign convention to find the image distance, size and type for concave and convex mirrors.
   4. Snell's lawUse the index of refraction n = c/v and Snell's law, with angles from the normal, to find the angle, speed and wavelength of light crossing a boundary, and explain what does not change.
   5. Total internal reflectionFind the critical angle from sin θ_c = n₂/n₁, say when a ray is totally reflected or escapes, and explain how an optical fiber guides light.
   6. Ray diagrams for lensesLocate the image formed by a converging or diverging thin lens with the three principal rays, and describe it as real or virtual, upright or inverted, enlarged or reduced.
   7. The thin lens equationUse 1/s_o + 1/s_i = 1/f and M = −s_i/s_o with a stated sign convention to find the image distance, height and type for converging and diverging lenses.
6. 6

   Waves, sound and physical optics

   10 lessons

   1. Properties of Wave Pulses and WavesSeparate the motion of a wave from the motion of the medium, say what sets a pulse's speed, and read a snapshot graph and a time graph of a pulse.
   2. Periodic WavesRead wavelength, amplitude, period and frequency from graphs, use v = fλ with the medium setting v and the source setting f, and apply intensity I = P/(4πr²) and phase.
   3. Boundary Behavior of Waves and PolarizationSay whether a reflected pulse is inverted or upright at a fixed end, a free end and a boundary between media, keep the frequency fixed across a boundary, and explain polarization.
   4. Electromagnetic WavesDescribe an electromagnetic wave, use c = fλ for any band of the spectrum, and use E = hf to compare photon energies and say which radiation can ionize atoms.
   5. The Doppler EffectExplain with wavefronts why the observed frequency rises when source and observer approach and falls when they recede, with the wave speed and the source's own frequency unchanged.
   6. Superposition and interferenceAdd displacements where waves overlap, decide loud or quiet from the path difference for two sources, and say that interference redistributes energy instead of destroying it.
   7. Standing waves in strings and pipesFind the wavelengths and frequencies of a string fixed at both ends, an open pipe and a closed pipe, and say how tension and length change them.
   8. DiffractionSay when a wave spreads strongly through an opening, and use a sin θ = mλ to find the dark fringes and the width of a single-slit pattern.
   9. Double-Slit Interference and Diffraction GratingsFind where two slits and a grating put bright fringes with d sin θ = mλ, compute the fringe spacing λL/d, and say what a grating does to white light.
   10. Thin-Film InterferenceCount the phase shifts of two reflections, use the path 2t and the wavelength λ/n in the film, and find the thicknesses that make a film bright or dark.
7. 7

   Modern physics

   8 lessons

   1. Quantum theory and wave-particle dualityFind the energy and momentum of a photon, find the de Broglie wavelength of a particle, and say why wave behaviour shows only when the wavelength matches the openings.
   2. The Bohr model of atomic structureUse the hydrogen levels E_n = −13.6 eV/n² to find the photon energy and wavelength of any jump, and decide which photons or electrons an atom can absorb.
   3. Emission and absorption spectraTell continuous, emission and absorption spectra apart, turn each line into an energy-level jump with λ = 1240/ΔE, and explain why dark lines appear at only some of the emission wavelengths.
   4. Blackbody radiationUse Wien's law and the T⁴ law to say how a hot object's peak colour and total power change with temperature, and explain why Planck needed quantized energy.
   5. The photoelectric effectUse K_max = hf − φ to find the energy, stopping potential and threshold of photoelectrons, and say how frequency and intensity each change the results.
   6. Compton scatteringTreat X-ray scattering as a photon-electron collision, find the electron's energy and momentum from the photon's longer wavelength, and use Δλ = (h/mc)(1 − cos θ).
   7. Fission, fusion, and mass-energyTurn a mass defect into energy with E = Δmc², read the binding-energy-per-nucleon curve to tell which reactions release energy, and balance A and Z in fission and fusion.
   8. Types of radioactive decayComplete alpha, beta and gamma decay equations by conserving A and Z, and use the half-life to find how much of a sample is left, while keeping one nucleus's randomness apart from a crowd's regularity.
8. 8

   Exam skills: the four free-response types

   2 lessons

   1. Experimental design and analysis in Physics 2Design an experiment with variables and meters, linearize an equation so a slope or intercept gives the wanted quantity, read a best-fit graph with units, and judge errors and support for a model.
   2. Representations and arguments in Physics 2Draw circuit, ray, field, Lenz and PV representations with their conventions, and write a justification as claim, principle, link and conclusion.